0 

CONFIDENTIAL— FOR  OFFICIAL  USE  ONLY 

NOTES  ON 

GAS  AS  A  WEAPON  IN 
MODERN  WARFARE 


COMPILED  FROM 
THE  LATEST  AVAILABLE  INFORMATION 


ARMY  WAR  COLLEGE 

APRIL,  1917 


WASHINGTON 
GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE 

1917 


WAK  DEPARTMENT 

Document  No.  577. 

Office  of  The  Adjutant  General. 


WAR  DEPARTMENT, 

WASHINGTON,  April  28,  1917. 

The  following  Notes  on  Gas/  as  a  Weapon  in  Modern  Warfare 
are  published  for  the  information  and  guidance  of  all  con- 
cerned. 

[2582933-A,  A.G.O.] 

BY  ORDER  OF  THE  SECRETARY  OF  WAB  : 

H.  L.  SCOTT, 

Major  General,  Chief  of  Staff. 
OFFICIAL  : 

H.  P.  MCCAIN, 

The  Adjutant  General. 


6G43V5 


CONTENTS. 

Page. 

Employment  of  gas  by  the  ancients 7 

The  first  use  of  gas  in  modern  warfare 8 

Instruction  in  the  methods  of  gas  warfare  (the  school  at 

Aldershot) 8-10 

Methods  of  making  a  gas  attack  (gas  clouds,  grenades,  bombs, 

and  projectiles) 10-13 

The  various  kinds  of  gases  (lachrymatory,  suffocating, 

asphyxiating) 13 

The  effect  of  gases 14 

Methods  of  protection 15 

(Signs  of  approaching  attack — Gas  masks) 14-18 

Practical  instruction,  mask  drill,  etc.,  drills  with  " Small  box 

respirators  " 18-25 

Exposure  to  gas  during  training 26 

General  regulations  (methods  of  defense) 26-30 

Tactical  employment  of  gas  in  offense 30-32 

5 


GAS  AS  A  WEAPON  IN  MODERN 
WARFARE.  :::•::••./ 


The  use  of  various  gases  as  weapons  of  offense  in  the 
present  war  has  become  so  general  that  in  any  training  of 
troops  in  the  future  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  technique 
of  gas  attacks  and  the  methods  of  defense  against  them  must 
be  included. 

The  use  of  gas,  like  many  of  the  other  weapons  now  in  com- 
mon use  in  the  armies  of  Europe,  such  as  the  catapult,  flame 
projector,  trench  knife,  and  sling,  is  an  inheritance  from  the 
early  ages,  amplified,  improved,  and  made  more  destructive  by 
the  aid  of  modern  science. 

The  first  recorded  effort  to  overcome  the  enemy  by  the  gen- 
eration of  poisonous  and  suffocating  gases  seems  to  have  been 
in  the  wars  of  the  Athenians  and  Spartans  (43,1  to  404  B.  C.), 
when  in  besieging  the  cities  of  Platea  and  Delium  the  Spartans 
saturated  wood  with  pitch  and  sulphur  and  burnt  it  under  the 
walls  of  those  cities  in  the  hopes  of  choking  the  defenders  and 
rendering  the  assault  less  difficult.  They  also  melted  pitch, 
charcoal,  and  sulphur  together  in  cauldrons  and  blew  the  fumes 
over  the  defenders'  lines  by  means  of  bellows. 

"  Greek  fire  "  was  used  by  the  Byzantine  Greeks  under  Con- 
stantine  about  672  A.  D.,  to  destroy  the  Saracens,  and  the 
Saracens,  in  turn,  used  it  as  a  weapon  of  defense  against  the 
Christians  during  the  crusades.  This  Greek  fire  had  the  double 
advantage  of  being  not  only  inflammable,  but  also  generating 
during  the  process  of  cambustion,  clouds  of  dense,  blinding  smoke 
and  gas  of  an  asphyxiating  character.  (This  gas,  sulphurous 
dioxide,  is  one  of  the  gases  used  to-day.)  Its  chemical  com- 
position was  supposed  to  be  a  mixture  of  quicklime,  petroleum, 
sulphur,  and  such  other  inflammable  substance  as  pitch,  resin, 
etc.  Upon  the  addition  of  water  the  slaking  process  which 

7 


8      GAS  AS  A  WEAPON  IN  MODERN  WARFARE. 

the  quicklime  underwent  generated  enough  heat  to  ignite  the 
petroleum,  which,  in  turn,  ignited  1,he  resin,  pitch,  and  sulphur. 
This  flaming  mixture  was  delivered  against  the  enemy  by  means 
of  fantastic  syringes  in  the  shape  of  dragons  and  other  mon- 
sters with  wide  jaws. 

The  first  use  of  gas  in  modern  warfare  occurred  April  22, 
1915,  when  the  Germans  liberated  great  clouds  of  gas  against 
the  allies'  tenches  near  Ypres,  with  a  resulting  complete  de- 
moralization of  the  troops  and  a  large  number  of  Casualties. 

Coincided  with  the  use  of  the  "  gas  cloud  "  the  Germans  began 
to  use  gas  also  in  bombs,  hand  grenades,  and  shells.  The  world 
was  astounded  at  this  resurrection  of  an  ancient  form  of  warfare, 
strictly  forbidden  by  The  Hague  convention,  but  new  weapons 
in  war  demand  that  they  be  met  with  similar  weapons,  and  a 
week  later  the  allies  had  agreed  to  manufacture  gas  shells  and 
use  gas  in  other  ways  in  retaliation.  From  this  beginning,  gas 
has  now  become  recognized  as  one  of  the  accepted  arms  of  the 
military  service  and  is  being  used  very  extensively  in  all  armies, 
especially  in  the  form  of  gas  shells. 

INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  METHODS  OF 
GAS  WARFARE. 

The  importance  of  thoroughly  instructing  all  soldiers  in  the 
methods  of  gas  warfare  and  the  methods  of  defense  against  it 
has  been  fully  recognized  in  the  armies  of  Europe.  The  whole 
object  of  such  instruction  is  to  make  every  man  thoroughly 
familiar  with  the  conditions  under  which  he  will  have  to  meet 
gas,  and  to  make  him  proficient  in  the  necessary  measures  of 
defense.  This  instruction  is  both  theoretical  and  practical.  The 
theoretical  instruction  covers  the  methods  of  employing  gases 
in  attack,  the  character  of  gases  used  and  their  effects,  while  the 
practical  instruction  covers  the  methods  of  defense,  including 
the  actual  exposure  to  gas.  In  both  England  and  France  each 
district  has  one  or  more  special  antigas  schools,  where  specially 
selected  officers  and  men  are  trained  to  enable  them  to  impart 
this  instruction  to  companies,  troops,  and  batteries. 

The  school  at  Aldershot  may  be  taken  as  a  type.  The  training 
plant  includes  a  lecture  room  with  gassing  apparatus  and 
charts,  a  "  gassing  house,"  and  an  area  in  which  model  trenches 
and  dugouts  have  been  prepared. 

The  gassing  house  contains  one  room  15  by  15  feet,  with  cor- 
ridor entrances  on  either  side  and  double  doors  to  each  corridor. 


•HH 


96838°— 17- 


10  GAS  AS  A  WEAPON  IN  MODERN  WARFARE. 

The  purpose  of  these  double  doors  is  to  prevent  the  escape  of 
gas.  To  give  the  men  practical  experience  in  enduring  asphyxiat- 
ing gases,  protected  by  masks  they  are  shut  up  in  the  room, 
masks  are  adjusted,  and  the  gas  is  turned  on. 

The  dugouts  have  a  corridor  entrance  to  them  from  the 
trenches,  and  in  place  of  doors  wet  blankets  reaching  down  to 
the  floor  are  hung  at  either  end  of  the  corridor.  These  wet 
blankets  are  to  simulate  the  wet  blankets  which  are  actually 
used  in  the  real  trenches'  to  prevent  gas  getting  Into  the  dugouts, 
and  are  used  here  to  show  the  soldier  that  the:/  really  are  a  pro- 
tection and  keep  out  gas. 

Trenches  and  dugouts  so  arranged  are  established  at  all  train- 
ing camps,  and  organizations  are  trained  in  turn  in  the  actual 
experience  of  resisting  gas  attacks.  They  enter  the  trenches  and 
dugouts ;  the  alarm  is  given  by  beating  on  a  gong,  and  gas  is 
turned  into  the  trenches  and  dugouts.  At  the  beating  of  the 
gong  each  man  must  adjust  his  mask.  Before  being  given  this 
actual  experience  with  gas,  each  man  is  given  a  thorough  course 
of  instruction  in  the  character  of  gases  and  drilled  into  the 
methods  of  defense  against  them.  In  the  12  weeks'  course  of 
training  laid  down  for  the  Infantry  recruit  he  is  given  1  hour 
antigas  instruction  each  week.  As  a  part  of  this  instruction  he 
is  practiced  in  running  and  exercising  while  wearing  his  mask. 

THEORETICAL  INSTRUCTION. 

Methods  of  making  a  gas  attack. — Gases  may  be  employed 
either  in  the  form  of  "  gas  clouds "  sent  against  the  enemy's 
trenches  by  means  of  a  favorable  \vind  or  liberated  in  the 
trenches  by  means  of  hand  grenades,  rifle  grenades,  bombs,  and 
shells.  There  are  various  ways  in  which  the  gases  forming  the 
gas  clouds  may  be  liberated.  The  most  primitive  (the  "  stinkpot  " 
method)  is  the  building  of  fires  in  front  of  the  trenches  in  which 
either  smoke  clouds  may  be  generated  by  the  burning  of  pitch 
and  petroleum,  or  lachrymatory  gases  may  be  generated  by  the 
burning  of  sulphur  or  a  derivative  of  formol.  In  the  first  case 
sulphurous  anhydride  is  evolved  and  in  the  second  formol  in  a 
gaseous  state.  This  generating  of  gases  by  the  burning  of  fires 
has  been  practiced  to  some  extent  in  the  present  war  and  is  ex- 
actly the  method  practiced  by  the  ancients.  The  improved  mod- 
ern method,  however,  is  the  liberation  of  the  gas  from  steel  con- 
tainers in  which  it  is  held  under  pressure  in  a  liquid  state. 


GAS  AS  A  WEAPON  IN  MODERN  WARFARE.  11 

These  containers  are  distributed  in  batteries  of  three  or  four  at 
intervals  of  about  50  yards  along  the  trenches  opposite  the  line 
to  be  attacked.  Tubes  provided  with  a  stopcock  attachment  are 
connected  with  the  gas  tanks  and  the  end  of  the  tube  passed  over 
the  parapet.  When  an  attack  is  intended  a  signal  is  given  and 
the  stopcocks  are  opened,  allowing  the  gas  to  escape  in  the  form 
of  a  dense  vapor.  This  escape  of  the  confined  gas  is  accom- 
panied by  a  low  whistling  sound  which,  at  night,  is  frequently 
the  only  warning  the  opposing  side  has  of  the  coming  attack. 

The  success  of  the  "  gas  cloud  "  is  dependent  on  the  atmos- 
pheric conditions.  A  calm  night  or  day,  with  a  gentle  wind 
blowing  in  the  right  direction  is  essential.  A  strong  wind  dis- 
tributes the  gas  too  quickly  and  diminishes  its  concentration, 
and  a  variable  wind  is  not  to  be  depended  upon;  too  much 
moisture  in  the  air  also  neutralizes  the  gas  somewhat  and 
diminishes  the  force  of  the  attack.  Before  a  gas-cloud  attack 
is  made,  therefore,  the  atmospheric  conditions  are  studied,  and 
the  direction  of  the  wind  is  determined  by  lighting  small  fires 
and  watching  the  direction  of  the  smoke,  by  letting  up  small 
balloons,  or  by  the  use  of  a  weather  cock.  These  methods 'are 
visible  sometimes  and  may  give  warning  of  an  impending  at- 
tack. 

The  gases  used  being  heavier  than  air  (chlorine  is  two  and 
one-half  and  bromine  five  times  as  heavy  as  air),  when  released 
under  proper  atmospheric  conditions,  move,  or  rather  appear 
to  roll,  along  the  ground  usually  in  the  form  of  a  dense  greenish 
yellow  cloud  toward  the  lines  of  troops  to  be  attacked,  and  when 
it  reaches  the  trenches  it  settles  down  into  all  parts  of  them, 
penetrating  the  dugouts  and  bomb  proofs  and  remaining  some- 
times for  several  days.  The  thickness  of  the  cloud  and  the 
rapidity  with  which  it  approaches  varies  in  accordance  with 
the  velocity  of  the  wind.  Gas  attacks  have  been  made  with 
velocities  varying  from  3  to  15  miles  per  hour,  i.  e.,  from  1£  to  7£ 
yards  per  second.  In  an  average  9-mile  wind  the  gas  would 
reach  trenches  100  yards  distant  in  20  seconds. 

While  the  gas-cloud  form  of  attack,  if  successful,  can  produce 
a  number  of  casualties,  its  operation  is  uncertain,  and  its  ap- 
proach can  be  anticipated  if  proper  watchfulness  is  maintained. 
Efficient  measures  can  be  taken  by  trained  troops  to  nullify 
its  effects,  and  its  military  value,  therefore,  is  probably  not  so 
great  as  when  it  is  used  in  shells,  bombs,  hand  grenades,  etc. 
This  method  is  a  much  more  definite  procedure  and  will  prob- 


12 


GAS  AS  A  WEAPON  IN  MODERN  WARFARE. 


ably  be  used  in  all  wars  of  the  future.  Gas  used  in  this  way 
has  a  distinct  military  advantage  in  that  it  is  possible  to  place 
it  exactly  where  it  may  be  needed  to  form  a  gas  barrage  or  a 
smoke  barrage  to  prevent  the  bringing  up  of  reinforcements  or 
the  retreat  of  defeated  troops. 


THROWING   HAND  GRENADES  CONTAINING  GAS. 

Gas  is  used  in  shells  of  both  large  and  small  caliber,  but  the 
5.9-inch  shell  seems  to  be  the  best  medium  for  its  transmission. 
These  shells  hold  about  7  liters  of  a  gas-producing  liquid.  They 
have  a  short  ogival  head  and  a  long  cylindrical  body  of  thin 
steel,  about  cpe-fourth  of  an  inch  thick;  closely  fitted  against 


GAS  AS  A  WEAPON  IN  MODERN  WARFARE.  13 

the  inside  walls  is  a  cylinder  of  sheet  lead  about  one-eighth 
inch  thick,  which  is  filled  with  the  gas-producing  liquid  and 
then  tightly  soldered.  This  lead  container  fills  nearly  the  whole 
cylindrical  portion  of  the  shell.  Just  above  it,  but  not  resting 
on  it,  is  the  explosive,  and  above  this,  on  the  point  of  the  shell, 
is  a  combination  of  time  and  impact  fuse.  The  effect  of  the 
charge  upon  exploding  is  to  tear  open  the  head  of  the  shell  and 
the  top  of  the  lead  container  so  as  to  allow  the  liquid  to  spill 
out  and  liberate  the  gas. 

Hand  grenades  of  various  kinds,  made  of  both  glass  and  iron, 
and  containing  a  quantity  of  gas-producing  liquid  are  used  in 
trench  warfare,  and  iron  bombs  with  a  bursting  charge  of 
black  powder  and  containing  gas  liquid  are  also  used  in  trench 
mortars. 

THE  VARIOUS  KINDS  OF  CASES. 

(a)  Lachrymatory  gases  (which  cause  an  intense  inflamma- 
tion of  the  eyes  with  temporary  blindness). 

(6)  Suffocating  oases  (which  cause  rapid  death  by  suffoca- 
tion). 

(•c)  Asphyxiating  gases  (which  are  extremely  severe  in  their 
action  and  cause  in  many  cases  immediate  death,  in  others  a 
lingering  death  after  several  days,  and  in  still  others  perma- 
nent physical  disability). 

The  lachrymatory  gases  are  the  ones  most  commonly  used  in 
projectiles.  The  asphyxiating  and  suffocating  gases  are  the 
ones  used  in  gas-cloud  attacks,  but  they  are  also  used  in  projec- 
tiles. 

A  great  variety  of  acids  may  be  used  for  the  production  of 
gases,  and  chemists  in  all  armies  are  constantly -experimenting 
with  a  view  to  perfecting  new  and  more  potent  combinations. 
The  ones  most  commonly  used  now,  however,  for  the  lachry- 
matory group  are  combinations  of  benzol  and  acetone,  with 
chlorine  and  bromine,  such  as  chloracetone,  bromacetone,  and 
benzyl  bromide.  The  principal  acids  used  for  asphyxiating 
purposes  are  chlorine,  bromine,  and  phosgene.  These  acids  are 
abundantly  produced  in  commercial  processes  of  manufacture, 
are  easily  obtained,  and  answer  every  purpose.  They  are,  how- 
ever, with  the  exception  of  phosgene,  easily  neutralized  by 
alkalies.  In  addition  to  these  commoner  acids,  many  other 
acids  have  been  used.  Some  of  them  are  hydrogen  sulphide, 
sulphurous  anhydride,  various  nitrous  vapors,  formol,  arsene, 
and  prussic  acid. 


14  GAS  AS  A  WEAPON  IN  MODERN  WARFARE. 

THE  EFFECT  OF  GASES. 

Certain  gases,  such  as  prussic  acid,  produce  instant  death  by 
paralyzing  the  central  nervous  system,  but  the  majority  of 
the  gases  have  a  special  affinity  for  the  mucous  membranes,  and 
their  systemic  effect  depends  on  the  amount  of  damage  they  do 
to  those  tissues.  The  lachrymatory  gases  have  a  special  action 


CLOUD  RESULTING   FROM  THE  COMBUSTION   OF    HYDROCAR- 
BURETED  COMPOUNDS. 

This  column  of  asphyxiatingvapor  is  terrifying;  it  is  about  30  meters  high, 
and  is  very  slowly  dispersed  by  the  wind. 

on  the  membranes  of  the  eye  and  upper  air  passages,  and  their 
effects,  though  severe  while  they  last,  are  as  a  rule  temporary. 
They  cause  a  severe  smarting  pain  and  running  of  the  eyes 
(tearing),  and  soon  the  lining  of  the  eyelids  become  so  swollen 
that  vision  is  impossible.  At  the  same  time  there  is  a  dryness, 
burning,  and  smarting  of  the  nose  and  throat,  with  coughing 


GAS  AS  A  WEAPON  IN  MODERN  WARFARE.  15 

and  sometimes  vomiting.    In  three  or  four  hours  these  symptoms 
begin  to  disappear  and  gradually  the  soldier  recovers. 

The  asphyxiating  and  suffocating  gases  are  far  more  severe 
in  their  action.  Their  potency  can  be  realized  when  it  is  known 
that  a  dilution  of  1 : 1,000  is  fatal  with  chlorine  and  bromine, 
and  1 :  25,000  is  fatal  with  phosgene.  A  dilution  of  1 : 100,000 
or  more  has  a  marked  effect.  These  gases  act  to  a  less  degree 
on  the  membranes  of  the  eye  than  the  lachrymatory  gases,  but 
their  action  is  particularly  virulent  on  the  membranes  of  the 
respiratory  tract,  which  they  cause  to  swell  rapidly  and  finally 
destroy.  The  result  in  edema  of  the  lungs,  accompanied  by 
persistent  coughing  and  spitting  of  blood,  then  great  difficulty 
in  breathing,  the 'soldier  becoming  cyanosed  and  struggling  for 
breath.  Death  may  be  almost  instantaneous,  or  it  may  be  post- 
poned for  several  days,  the  sufferer  in  the  meantime  not  being 
able  to  eat  anything  and  undergoing  great  agony.  Many  of  the 
cases  in  which  recovery  does  take  place  develop  later  a  chronic 
disease  of  the  lungs. 

METHODS  OF  PROTECTION. 

The  deadly  character  of  gas  attacks  can  be  almost  entirely 
obviated  if  the  proper  means  of  protection  are  known  and 
strictly  enforced.  These  are  primarily  : 

1.  Prompt  warning  of  an  approaching  attack;  and  2.  Prompt 
application  of  the  gas  mask.  The  rapidity  with  which  gas 
clouds  travel  make  it  essential  that  warning  of  an  approach- 
ing attack  be  given  without  delay,  and  that  troops  adjust  their 
masks  as  rapidly  as  possible. 

Advance  information  of  an  attack  can  be  frequently  obtained 
by  aeroplane  reconnaissance  and  constant  observation  of  the 
enemy's  trenches  by  outpost  sentries.  These  two  sources  of  in- 
formation should  be  continuously  employed.  The  only  certain 
signs  of  an  actual  attack,  however,  are : 

(a)  The  whistling  sound  of  the  gas  as  it  escapes  from  the 
containers. 

( & )  The  smell  of  the  gas. 

(c)  The  appearance  of  a  cloud  of  any  color  over  the  enemy's 
trenches. 

(With  all  gases  at  night  and  with  certain  forms  of  gas  in  the 
daytime  the  cloud  is  not  visible  at  a  distance. ) 

Immediately  upon  the  appearance  of  any  of  these  signs  the 
"  gas  alarm  "  should  be  given  and  masks  put  on  instantly. 


16  GAS  AS  A  WEAPON  IN  MODERN  WARFARE. 

GAS  MASKS. 

A  perfect  familiarity  with  the  uses  of  the  mask  and  its  prompt 
application  is  the  only  certain  means  of  defense.  This  has  been 
proven  very  thoroughly  in  the  present  war.  The  casualties  in 
the  first  gas  attack  at  Ypres,  where  nothing  was  known  as  to 
the  means  of  defense,  were  fully  25  per  cent,  while  in  recent 
attacks  made  on  troops  provided  with  the  latest  masks  and 
thoroughly  drilled  in  their  use  the  casualties  have  been  barely 
1  per  cent.  In  other  instances,  however,  with  the  same  masks, 
but  in  the  hands  of  undrilled  troops,  the  casualties  have  been 
large. 

The  development  of  gas  masks  has  kept  pace  with  the  develop- 
ment of  the  use  of  gas  in  war.  Within  two  days  after  the 
attack  at  Ypres  100,000  masks  had  been  prepared  by  the  women 
of  France  and  sent  to  the  troops  at  the  front.  These  masks 
were,  however,  simply  small  pads  of  gauze  and  cotton  tied 
over  the  mouth  by  means  of  strings  and  of  course  did  not  an- 
swer their  purpose. 

All  of  the  gas  masks  in  use  to-day  provide  mechanical  protec- 
tion to  the  eyes  by  means  of  goggles  and  chemical  protection 
to  the  air  passages  by  means  of  a  mixture  of  various  elements 
which  neutralize  the  chemical  action  of  the  gas.  The  funda- 
mental principles  underlying  them  all  are  (a)  the  protection  of 
the  eyes  without  interference  with  vision  and  (&)  the  exclusion 
from  the  air  passages  of  all  air  except  that  which  has  passed 
through  a  neutralizing  element.  The  first  is  accomplished  by 
means  of  goggles  or  eyepieces  which  fit  tightly  around  the  eyes. 
The  second  is  effected  by  means  of  various  mechanical  devices 
in  which  all  the  inspired  air  is  made  to  pass  through  either  a 
pad  or  cloth  which  has  been  previously  treated  with  neutraliz- 
ing chemicals  or  through  a  metal  container  which  is  kept  filled 
with  a  neutralizing  mixture.-  The  latter  has  proven  the  best 
device  and  is  now  in  use  in  practically  all  armies. 

The  English  type  of  this  mask  is  known  as  "  the  small  box 
respirator."  It  comprises  an  impervious  face  piece  or  mask  con- 
taining windows  for  the  eyes,  which  is  held  in  place  by  rubber 
bands  around  the  head,  a  tin  can  or  box  carried  in  a  small 
haversack,  and  a  flexible,  noncompressible  tube  connecting  the 
box  with  the  face  piece.  Inside  the  face  piece  is  a  small  wire 
clamp  which, .  applied  to  the  nose,  prevents  air  from  being  in- 
haled through  the  nasal  passages.  When  the  face  piece  is  ad- 


GAS  AS  A  WEAPON  IN  MODERN  WARFARE. 


17 


justed  and  the  nose  clamp  in  position,  the  wearer  takes  the 
end  of  the  flexible  tube  in  his  mouth,  and  both  inspiration  and 
expiration  is  carried  on  through  this  tube.  The  expired  air 
finds  exit  through  a  rubber  check  valve  just  outside  the  mask, 


HAND    TO    HAND  COMBAT    BETWEEN  GERMAN    AND    ENGLISH 
TROOPS  FOLLOWING  A  GAS-CLOUD  ATTACK. 

The  men  on  the  right  (English)  are  wearing  the  tube  helmet  type  of  gas 
mask.    The  man  on  the  left  is  wearing  the  German  mask. 

while  the  inspired  air  is  taken  in  through  a  wire  netting  win- 
dow in  the  bottom  of  the  box.  In  this  box  the  neutralizing  mix- 
ture is  arranged  in  five  layers,  and  in  its  passage  through  these 
five  layers  the  gas-laden  air  is  robbed  of  its  poisonous  qualities. 


18  GAS  AS  A  WEAPON  IN  MODERN  WARFARE. 

The  German  mask  is  somewhat  similar  to  the  English  mask, 
but  the  container  for  the  neutralizing  mixture  is  screwed  on  to 
a  ring  in  the  bottom  of  the  mask.  Inspired  air  and  expired  air 
both  pass  through  the  container.  In  addition  to  the  small  box 
respirator  type  of  mask,  every  English  soldier  is  provided  with 
a  mask  of  the  "  tube-helmet "  type,  to  be  carried  as  a  reserve. 
This  mask  is  really  a  cloth  or  flannel  hood  with  a  skirt  long 
enough  to  be  tucked  under  the  collar  of  the  coat.  It  is  provided 
with  eyepieces  and  a  tube  and  check  valve  arrangement,  through 
which  the  expired  air  escapes.  Inspired  air  comes  through  the 
cloth  of  the  mask,  which  has  been  impregnated  with  chemicals. 
In  addition  to  a  mask  somewhat  similar  to  the  English  "  respira- 
tor "  type,  the  French  Army  is  equipped  with  a  mask  known  us 
the  M2  type. 

This  mask  has  a  face  piece  with  celluloid  windows  for  the 
eyes  and  a  crescent-shaped  piece  passing  under  the  chin  and 
well  up  to  the  ears.  The  mask  below  the  goggles  is  lined  with 
a  quilted  pad  of  gauze  soaked  with  neutralizing  chemicals.  A 
piece  of  thick  sheeting  of  pure  rubber  goes  around  the  goggles  on 
the  inside  and  Is  stitched  between  the  layers  of  quilted  gauze 
to  prevent  air  leaks.  The  face  piece  on  the  outside  is  protected 
by  a  layer  of  waterproof  cloth. 

As  gases  have  an  effect  on  horses  similar  to  that  on  men, 
masks  are  now  being  provided.  Horses  and  all  animals  when  in 
the  danger  zone  are  masked. 

PRACTICAL  INSTRUCTION. 

Practical  instruction  should  include  the  mechanism  of  the 
gas  mask,  and  the  manner  in  which  it  is  used,  and  should  be 
so  arranged  as  to  train  the  soldier  in  the  quick  and  accurate 
application  of  his  mask  and  to  accustom  him  to  the  performance 
of  his  usual  duties  while  wearing  it.  In  other  words,  every 
effort  should  be  made  to  familiarize  him  with  "  the  feel "  of  his 
mask  and  to  establish  his  confidence  in  it. 

The  care  of  the  mask  should  be  explained  and  the  absolute 
necessity  for  having  it  at  all  times  nearby  and  in  perfect  con- 
dition dwelt  upon. 

The  main  point  to  be  impressed  upon  the  soldier  is  that  the 
chemical  material  in  the  mask  acts  as  ii  filter  and  that  all  air 
breathed  into  the  lungs  must  first  pass  through  this  chemical 
material  in  order  that  the  poisonous  qualities  of  the  gas  may  be 


19 


20  GAS  AS  A  WEAPON  IN  MODERN  WARFARE. 

eliminated.  There  must  therefore  be  no  leaks  in  the  mask,  nor 
must  it  be  removed  until  orders  to  do  so  have  been  given  by 
the  noncommissioned  officer  in  charge  of  the  trench  section. 

Mask  Drill. — Mask  drill  should  be  carried  out  frequently  by 
all  ranks.  It  should  aim  at  teaching  the  quick  adjustment  of 
the  mask  under  all  conditions,  accustoming  men  to  wearing  them 
for  a  long  time  and  taking  exercises  in  them.  The  following 
points  should  be  noted : 

(a)  Men  should  be  timed  in  removing  the  mask  from  con- 
tainer and  getting  it  properly  adjusted  on  the  face.  This 
should  only  take  a  few  seconds,  and  the  importance  of  develop- 
ing quickness  and  dexterity  in  the  men  in  the  application  of 
their  masks  can  not  be  overestimated.  Men  should  be  taught  to 
hold  their  breath  while  putting  on  the  mask,  as  a  few  breaths 
drawn  in  concentrated  gas  may  be  followed  by  serious  results. 

( & )  Practice  simple  movements  while  wearing  mask,  physical 
drill,  setting-up  exercises,  short-running  exercises,  etc.  At  first 
these  exercises  should  not  exceed  15  minutes  but  should  be 
gradually  extended.  Men  must  be  accustomed  to  wearing  their 
masks  for  at  least  one  hour. 

(c)  The  care  of  the  mask,  method  of  keeping  the  eyepieces 
clean,  etc. 

(<Z)  Practice  in  bombing,  rapid  loading,  and  aiming,  judging 
distance  and  range  practice  while  wearing  the  mask. 

(e)   Practice  in  attacking  trenches  and  in  use  of  bayonet. 

As  an  evidence  of  the  minuteness  and  exactness  which  is  re- 
quired in  instructing  soldiers  in  the  application  of  the  gas  mask, 
the  following  may  be  quoted  from  the  English  drill  regulations : 

DRILLS  WITH  SMALL  BOX  RESPIRATORS. 

Practice  A. — Adjustment  of  the  respirator  box  in  the  "  alert " 
position. 

On  the  command  "  Gas  alert  "  hang  the  box  respirator  around 
the  neck  with  the  press  buttons  next  the  body.  With  the  right 
hand  seize  the  satchel  by  the  leather  tab,  with  the  left  hand 
seize  the  sling  by  the  brass  button  and  slip  this  into  the  leather 
tab.  Undo  the  press  buttons  closing  the  satchel,  tuck  in  the 
slack  of  the  sling  into  the  left-hand  compartment,  so  that  it 
lies  under  the  mask. 

The  length  of  whipcord  will  then  be  withdrawn  from  the  right- 
hand  compartment,  passed  through  the  ring  on  the  right  of  the 


GAS  AS  A  WEAPON  IN  MODERN  WARFARE. 


21 


satchel,  and  carried  round  the  waist  to  the  ring  on  the  left, 
where  it  is  fastened. 

The  press  button  closing  the  satchel  will  be  left  undone,  but 
the  flap  will  be  put  in  position  to  keep  the  respirator  from  wet. 


TRAINING  RECRUITS  FOR  ATTACK  WHILE  WEARING   MASKS. 


TRAINING  IN  THE  USE  OF  THE  BAYONET  WHILE  WEARING  THE 
MASK. 

Practice  B — Drill  by  numbers  to  obtain  correct  adjustment 
of  the  small  box  respirator. 

NOTE. — This  drill  is  to  be  carried  out  alternately  with  one 
"  judging  the  time,"  i.  e.,  as  quick  adjustment  as  jjossible.  It  is 
most  important,  and  complete  adjustment  must  be  obtained 
by  all  ranks  in  six  seconds. 


22  GAS  AS  A  WEAPON  IN  MODERN  WARFARE. 

Adjust  the  respirator  in  the  alert  position,  with  satchel 
covered  but  not  buttoned. 

j  1.  On  command  "  One  "  press  down  both  thumbs  between  the 
satchel  and  the  body  and  open  the  satchel  flap.  Immediately 
sei?e  the  mask  with  the  right  hand,  the  metal  breathing  tube 
just  outside  the  mask  being  in  the  palm  of  the  hand  and  the 
thumb  and  first  finger  grasping  the  wire  frame  of  the  nose  clip. 

2.  On  the  command  "  Two  "  bring  the  mask  smartly  out  of 
the  satchel  and  hold  it  in  both  hands  with  all  the  fingers  out- 
side round  the  binding,  and  the  two  thumbs  inside,  pointing 
inward  and  upward  under  the  elastic.    At  the  same  time  throw 
the  chin  well  forward  ready  to  enter  the  mask  opposite  the 
nose  clip. 

3.  On  the  command  "  Three "  bring  the  mask  forward,  dig- 
ging the  chin  into  it,  and  with  the  same  motion  bring  the  elastic 
bands  back  over  the  crown  of  the  head  to  the  full  extent  of 
the  retaining  tape,  using  the  thumbs. 

4.  On  the  command  "  Four  "  seize  the  metal  breathing  tube 
outside  the  mask,  thumb  on  the  right,  fingers  on  the  left,  all 
pointing  toward  the  face.     Push  the  rubber  mouthpiece  well 
into  the  mouth  and  pull  it  forward  until  the  rim  of  the  mouth- 
piece lies  between  the  teeth  and  the  lips  and  the  two  rubber 
grips  are  held  by  the  teeth. 

5.  On  the  command  "  Five  "  adjust  the  nose  clip  to  the  nose, 
using  the  thumb  and  first  three  fingers  of  the  right  hand.    Come 
smartly  to  attention. 

Practice  C — Drill  to  teach  cleaning  of  eyepieces. — On  the 
command  "  Clean  eyepieces  "  the  right  eyepiece  will  be  gripped 
between  the  thumb  and  first  finger  of  the  left  hand.  The  first 
finger  of  the  right  hand  will  then  be  pushed  gently  into  the 
flap  of  the  mask  behind  the  right  eyepiece,  which  will  be 
cleaned  with  a  gentle  circular  motion. 

The  left  eyepiece  wrill  be  cleaned  in  a  similar  way. 

Practice  D — Drill  to  teach  method  of  giving  orders. — It  is 
first  explained  to  a  squad  that  the  nose  clip  must  not  be  re- 
moved to  talk,  and  that  before  each  sentence  is  spoken  a  long 
breath  must  be  taken  and  the  mouthpiece  removed  sideways 
from  the  mouth  by  turning  the  metal  tube  outside  the  mask  to 
one  side.  After  speaking  the  mouthpiece  is  replaced. 

The  squad  should  then  be  numbered  off,  extended  to  four 
paces,  and  orders  passed  along  the  line. 

Officers  and  noncommissioned  officers  will  receive  instructions 
in  practice  D. 


GAS  AS  A  WEAPON  IN  MODERN  WARFARE.  23 

Practice  E. — Drill  to  teach  method  of  clearing  mask  from 
gas  which  may  have  leaked  in  and  is  affecting  the  eyes. — 
Press  the  mask  close  to  the  face,  forcing  out  foul  air  round  the 
sides,  and  then  fill  again  with  air  from  the  lungs  by  blowing 
out  round  the  mouthpiece. 

Practice  F. — Drill  to  teach  method  of  testing  whether  trench 
or  dugout  is  free  from  gas. — With  right  hand  open  the  face 
piece  away  from  the  right  cheek,  then  loosen  the  nose  clip  on 
the  nose  and  smell  gently  (do  not  take  a  breath).  If  gas  is 
smelled,  the  nose  clip  and  mask  are  replaced.  Then  as  in 
drill-  "  E." 

Practice  G. — Ordinary  infantry  drill  will  be  carried  out  while 
wearing  the  mask.  This  will  include  doubling  for  at  least  200 
yards  at  a  time.  Marching  order  will  be  worn.  Musketry  and 
bombing  instruction  and  training  of  specialists  (including  ar- 
tillery, machine  gunners,  signalers,  R.  A.  M.  C.)  will  also  be 
carried  out. 

Practice  H. — Drill  to  teach  changing  from  the  small  box 
respirator  to  the  tube  helmet. — On  the  command  "  Change " 
hold  the  breath,  knock  off  the  steel  helmet  with  the  right  hand, 
pull  off  the  mask  by  inserting  the  fingers  of  the  left  hand  under 
the  mask  at  the  chin,  and  then  get  on  the  tube  helmet.  When 
the  chin  grip  is  obtained,  commence  breathing  again. 

Protection  must  be  obtained  in  10  seconds  or  less. 

NOTE. —  (a)  If  after  wearing, for  a  long  time  the  pressure  of 
the  nose  clip  becomes  unbearable,  it  may  be  relieved  for  a  few 
moments  by  taking  off  the  pressure  without  removing  clip. 

(&)  Removing  masks. — It  must  be  seen  that -when  masks  are 
removed  this  is  done  without  strain  on  the  face  piece  or  elastic. 
On  the  command  "  Take  off  masks,"  insert  the  fingers  of  the 
left  hand  under  the  mask  at  the  chin,  bend  the  head  forward, 
at  the  same  time  removing  the  mask  with  an  upward  motion 
of  the  left  hand. 

(c)  After  all  drill  the  mouthpiece  must  be  disinfected,  the 
mask  wiped  dry,  folded  correctly  and  put  away  in  such  a  way 
that  the  rubber  valve  is  not  bent. 

Having  become  thoroughly  accustomed  to  the  use  of  the  mask, 
all  ranks  should  be  given  an  actual  exposure  to  gas  in  the 
training  trenches.  This  exposure  should  simulate  in  every 
way  an  actual  gas  attack.  At  the  gas  alarm  every  man  should 
promptly  adjust  his  mask,  and  inspection  should  be  made  to 
see  that  this  has  been  properly  done.  The  gas  should  then  be 


24 


TRAINING  TROOPS  TO  ACCUSTOM  THEM  TO  THE   POISON-GAS 
ATTACKS. 

Soldiers  wearing  the  protective  masks  descending  an  underground  chamber 
filled  with  poison  gas. 


BOX  RESPIRATOR  TYPE  IN  USE  IN  THE  FRENCH  ARMY. 

25 


26  GAS  AS  A  WEAPON  IN  MODERN  WARFARE. 

turned  into  the  trenches  and  the  men  kept  in  it  for  some  time. 
Practice  in  clearing  the  trenches  and  dugouts  of  gas  should  be 
given,  and  men  trained  in  the  use  of  the  gas  fans  and  sprayers. 
Finally  they  should  be  practiced  in  the  methods  •£  determining 
whether  or  not  all  gas  had  been  gotten  rid  of  a«d  if  the  mask 
can  be  safely  removed. 

.GENERAL  REGULATIONS. 

The  following  general  regulations  governing  gas  attacks  should 
be  published,  and  all  officers  and  men  should  be  required  to  be 
familiar  with  them : 

1.  Every  officer  is  responsible  that  the  men  under  his  com- 
mand are  properly  instructed  in  defensive  measures  against  gas 
attacks,  and  that  standing  orders  on  the  subject  are  thoroughly 
understood.    The  experience  in  Europe  has  shown  that  in  order 
to  reduce  gas  casualties  to  a  minimum  the  utmost  care  must  be 
taken — 

(a)  In  inspection  of  masks. 

(&)  In  training  all  men  in  quick  adjustment  of  their  masks 
under  all  conditions. 

(c)  To  insure  that  every  man,  whether  in  front  or  in  the 
supporting  lines,  shall  be  given  immediate  warning  of  an  im- 
pending attack. 

If  the  above  conditions  are  fulfilled  and  the  nature  of  the 
gas  attack  understood  and  protective  measures  are  carried  out 
automatically  as  the  result  of  effective  training,  the  effect  of 
a  gas  attack  becomes  very  small. 

The  rapidity  with  irhich  the  gas  cloud  travels  makes  it  essen- 
tial that  troops  should  adjust  their  masks  as  rapidly  as  possible, 
and  that  warning  of  an  approaching  gas  attack  should  be  given 
without  delay. , 

2.  Wind  observations. — Wind  observation  should  be  made  at 
regular  intervals  by  officers  detailed  for  that  duty  in  all  units 
in  the  front  line,  so  that  warning  may  be  given  when  conditions 
are  favorable  for  a  hostile  gas  attack. 

3.  When  the  wind  is  favorable  for  a   gas  attack. —  (a)  At 
night  sentries  should  have  at  least  two  men  in  reach  of  them 
so  that  the  alarm  can  be  spread  rapidly. 

(&)  A  sufficient  number  of  sentries  should  be  posted  over 
large  dugouts  or  groups  of  dugouts  to  insure  that  all  sleeping 
men  can  be  aroused  without  delay. 


GAS  AS  A  WEAPON  IN  MODERN  WARFARE.  27 

(c)  When  thought  necessary  an  additional  inspection  of  masks 
should  be  made. 

(d)  Sentries  should  be  told  off  for  warning  the  company  and 
regimental  headquarters,  and  the  artillery  observation  post,  if 
there  be  one  in  the  trench. 

(e)  At  night  and  at  all  times  when  a  gas  attack  is  expected 
men  in  advanced  trenches  will  have  the  masks  in  instant  readi- 
ness to  apply. 

(/)  Commanders  of  all  units  in  camp  or  billet  in  rear  of  the 
trenches,  but  wihin  the  area  of  danger  from  gas,  will  make  the 
proper  arrangements  for  giving  the  alarm  and  rousing  all  men 
on  receipt  of  information  of  a  gas  attack. 

4.  Gas  alarm. — Appliances  for  giving  the  alarm  in  case  of 
gas  attack  must  be  carefully  arranged  in  advance.  These  should 
be  of  ^wo  kinds.  The  first  in  the  form  of  gongs  or  bells,  etc., 
at  each  sentry  post  which  will  be  beaten  or  rung  directly  gas  is 
detected  a.nd  will  arouse  the  men  in  their  immediate  vicinity, 
the  signal  being  passed  along  by  all  sentries  as  soon  as  heard. 
The  second  kind  will  be  for  the  purpose  of  conveying  the  alarm 
to  troops  in  support  or  reserve  lines  and  should  be  loud  horns 
worked  by  compressed  air  or  motor  (Klaxon  horns)  in  order  to 
supplement  wire  communication  should  the  latter  break  down. 

No  reliance  can  be  placed  on  method  of  communication  in- 
volving the  use  of  the  lungs,  e.  g.,  bugles,  whistles,  or  tele- 
phones. Sentries  must  be  prepared  to  give  the  alarm  on  the 
first  sign  of  gases,  a  few  seconds  delay  may  involve  serious 
consequences. 

5.  Action  to  be   taken  on  gas  alarm   signal. —  (a)   Everyone 
put  on  masks. 

(&)  Rouse  all  men  in  trenches  and  dugouts.  Warn  officers 
and  artillery  observation  posts,  etc. 

(c)  Company  commander  call  for  artillery  support  and  warn 
headquarters  and  troops  in  rear  by  means  of  prearranged  sig- 
nals. 

(d)  Infantry  man  parapets  and  open  fire  with  rifle  and  ma- 
chine   guns,    and,    where   practicable,    trench    mortars    on    the 
trenches  from  which  the  gas  is  issuing. 

(e)  Let  down  and  fix  carefully  the  blanket,  curtains  at  en- 
trances to  cellars  and  dugouts  so  protected. 

6.  General    precautions    during    gas    attacks. — Officers    and 
noncommissioned  officers  must  not  take  off  their  masks  to  give 
orders.     Men  must  always  be  on  the  lookout  to  help  each  other 


28  GAS  AS  A  WEAPON  IN  MODERN  WARFARE. 

in  case  a  mask  is  damaged.  When  a  man  is  wounded,  he  must 
be  watched  to  see  that  he  does  not  remove  his  mask.  If  neces- 
sary, his  hands  should  be  tied. 

Men  must  be  warned  that  if  they  are  slightly  "gassed"  be- 
fore adjusting  their  masks  they  must  not  remove  them.  The 
effect  will  wear  off.  After  the  cloud  has  passed  and  the  trenches 
been  cleared-  of  gas  by  the  apparatus  provided  for  the 
purpose,  the  noncommissioned  officer  in  charge  of  each  trench 
section  will  assure  himself  that  the  trench  is  free  from  gas  by 
raising  his  mask  slightly,  and  will  then  issue  the  order  to  take 
off  masks.  Men  will  on  no  account  take  off  their  masks  until 
the  order  to  do  so  has  been  given.  Dugouts  and  bombproofs 
must  be  entered  with  caution  even  after  the  trenches  are  clear, 
as  gas  frequently  remains  in  them  some  hours. 

Rifles  and  machine  guns  should  be  cleaned  after  an  attack, 
as  the  gas  affects  them  injuriously.  If  ammunition  boxes  are 
kept  closed  and  machine  guns,  rifles,  and  ammunitipn  not  in 
boxes  are  kept  well  oiled  and  are  fired  occasionally,  during  a 
gas  attack,  there  is  little  risk  of  jamming.  Oil  cleaning  will 
prevent  corrosion  for  12  hours  or  more,  but  the  first  available 
opportunity  should  be  taken  to  dismantle  the  gun  and  clean 
the  parts  in  boiling  water  containing  a  little  washing  soda. 
If  this  is  not  done,  corrosion  continues  slowly,  even  after  the 
oil  cleaning,  and  may  ultimately  put  the  gun  out  of  action. 

Battery  commanders  should  be  reminded  that  aiming  posts  are 
liable  to  be  obscured  by  the  gas  cloud,  and  that  arrangements 
should  be  made  in  every  battery  to  meet  this  eventuality  by  pro- 
viding gun  pits  with  means  to  check  the  line  of  fire,  if  necessary, 
without  depending  on  the  aiming  posts. 

7.  Masks. — The  mask  is  the  main  defense  against  a  gas  at- 
tack, and  great  care  must  be  taken  by  officers  to  insure  that  the 
masks  are  in  good  order  and  that  the  men  have  been  trained  in 
their  use.  Masks  issued  to  officers  and  men  should  be  invariably 
kept  on  the  person  at  all  times.  This  refers  not  only  to  units  in 
the  trenches,  but  to  all  units  and  individuals  when  within  4  miles 
of  the  front  line.  They  will  be  carried  in  containers  on  the  out- 
side of  the"  coat  or  overcoat  so  that  they  are  readily  accessible 
at  all  times.  They  must  be  kept  from  exposure  and  wet  and 
only  removed  from  the  containers  for  inspection. 

Masks  should  be  inspected  once  a  week  or  more  frequently  if  a 
gas  attack  is  imminent.  Great  care  must  be  exercised  to  see 
that  they  are  at  all  times  in  perfect  conditions.  To  prevent  dim- 


GAS  AS  A  WEAPON  IN  MODERN  WARFARE.  29 

ming  of  the  eyepieces  from  condensation  of  moisture  a  proper 
chemical  paste  should  be  issued,  to  be  applied  to  the  inner  surface 
of  the  windows.  A  little  of  the  paste  should  be  applied  with  a 
dry  rag  to  the  inside  of  the  eyepieces,  rubbing  it  hard  into  the 
glass.  Then  polish  off  as  much  as  possible  "with  a  fresh  rag, 
leaving  the  glass  quite  clear. ,  This  process  must  be  repeated  at 
each  weekly  inspection  and  after  the  goggles  have  been  worn. 

8.  Gas-shell  attacks. — The  purpose  for  which  gas  shells  are 
usually  employed  is  to  produce  a  barrage  to  prevent  the  bringing 
up  of  supports. 

The  liquid  contained  in  these  shells  is  usually  the  lachryma- 
tory gas  and  converted  into  a  dense  white  cloud  of  vapor  by  the 
explosion.  This  causes  intense  irritation  and  watering  of  the 
eyes,  and  is  often  sufficiently  concentrated  to  irritate  the  throat 
and  cause  coughing  and  sometimes  vomiting,  but  is  not  deadly 
like  the  asphyxiating  gases.  The  latter  are  sometimes  used  in 
shells,  however,  so  that  upon  the  first  intimation  of  a  gas-shell 
attack  the  mask  should  be  applied. 

9.  Methods  of  clearing-  'gas  out  of  shell  holes  and  trenches. — 
During  an  attack  the  gas  sinks  into  the  dugouts,  and  when  gas 
shells  are  used  it  sinks  into  the  crater  made  by  the  shell  and 
remains  in  these  places  a  long  time,  as  it  is  difficult  to  clear  out. 
Gas  may  be  almost  entirely  kept  out  of  dugouts  by  hanging 
damp   blankets  over   the  entrances  into   them.     This   method 
should  be  universally  adopted  by  artillery  batteries,  at  regi- 
mental, brigade,  and  division  headquarters,  and  wherever  dug- 
outs and  cellars  are  used  within  the  shell  area.    The  blankets 
must  be  kept  wet  to  effectually  exclude  the  air  currents.    Shell 
holes  which  are  so  situated  as  to  be  obnoxious  should  be  filled 
up  with  fresh  earth,  care  being  taken  to  cover  up  all  places 
around  the  hole  where  the  chemical  liquid  from  the  shell  has 
dropped.     Shell  holes  so  treated  should  not  be  disturbed,  as  the 
chemical  is  not  destroyed  by  burying,  and  only  slowly  disap- 
pears. 

After  the  cloud  has  passed  gas  may  be  cleared  out  of  the 
trenches  by  the  use  of  chemical  sprayers  and  fans.  These 
should  be  distributed  at  easily  accessible  points  in  or  near  the 
trenches  and  protected  from  shell  fire.  These  sprayers  are 
similar  to  the  tree  sprayers  of  commerce  and  are  kept  filled 
with  a  liquid  alkali  which  has  the  property  of  neutralizing 
asphyxiating  gases  but  has  no  effect  on  lachrymatory  gases. 
The  latter  must  be  dissipated  by  ventilation  of  dugouts  and  the 


30  GAS  AS  A  WEAPON  IN  MODERN  WARFARE. 

use  of  fans.  When  a  carbon  monoxide  gas  is  present  in  dug- 
outs the  ordinary  mask  is  no  protection.  For  this  reason  spe- 
cial oxygen  containers  must  be  provided  for  use  of  men  en- 
gaged in  clearing  out  the  dugouts.  This  latter  is  accomplished 
by  burning  waste  soaked  with  crude  oil  in  an  iron  firepot. 
Where  the  dugouts  are  properly  ventilated  the  heated  air  causes 
a  current  which  quickly  clears  the  dugout.  Each  company 
should  have  a  noncommissioned  officer  in  charge  of  a  squad  of 
men  trained  in  the  care  and  use  of  the  sprayers  and  fans.  On 
taking  over  trenches  this  gas  noncommissioned  officer  will  take 
over  from  the  outgoing  gas  noncommissioned  officer  the  sprayers 
and  fans  and  will  see  that  each  is  in  good  condition  and  that 
each  sprayer  is  provided  with  solution.  A  man  will  be  assigned 
to  each  sprayer.  He  will  be  responsible  for  testing  it  every 
day,  and  in  case  of  gas  attack  he  will  stand  by  to  use  it  when 
ordered.  Every  company  commander  will  be  held  responsible 
that  all  the  above  measures  are  properly  applied  from  the  mo- 
ment that  he  takes  over  a  sector  of  trench. 

THE  TACTICAL  EMPLOYMENT  OF  GAS  IN  OFFENSE. 

The  above  resum£  of  the  use  of  gas  in  the  European  armies 
deals  entirely  with  the  question  of  defense  against  gas  attacks 
and  the  precautions  and  methods  of  instruction  that  must  be 
instituted  to  minimize  their  effects.  Gas  having  been  generally 
adopted  in  all  armies,  however,  a  knowledge  of  the  technique 
of  its  employment  in  offense  must  also  be  considered. 

As  has  been  noted  above,  gas  may  be  employed  in  the  form 
of  gas  clowds  or  waves,  gas  shells,  gas  trench  mortar  bombs, 
hand  bombs,  and  grenades.  The  proper  use  of  gas  in  the 
form  of  a  cloud  attack  is  of  so  technical  a  character  that 
its  employment  should  be  delegated  to  specially  trained  gas 
companies  attached  to  each  division.  In  the  English  Army 
an  entire  brigade  of  Royal  Army  engineers  has  been  organ- 
ized for  the  gas  offensive.  This  brigade  is  under  the  com- 
mand of  a  general  officer  attached  to  army  headquarters. 
When  a  gas-cloud  attack  has  been  decided  upon  the  gas 
officer  should  make  a  survey  of  the  sector  involved  and  desig- 
nate the  location  of  the  batteries  of  gas  containers.  These 
batteries,  which  may  vary  from  3  to  12  containers,  are 
placed  in  specially  prepared  emplacements  under  the  front  line 
parapets  and  thoroughly  protected  from  shell  fire.  Inasmuch 


GAS  AS  A  WEAPON  IN  MODERN  WARFARE.  31 

as  the  trenches  never  follow  a  straight  line  the  batteries  must 
be  so  located  that  when  the  gas  is  released  it  will  not  "  enfilade  " 
the  trench  containing  them.  Advantage  must  be  taken  of 
salients  so  facing  the  enemy  that  the  wind  will  carry  the  gas 
in  the  proper  direction.  The  best  distribution  of  the  gas  can  be 
accomplished  with  batteries  placed  at  intervals  of  from  30  to 
40  yards. 

The  weather  conditions  being  of  such  great  moment  in  the 
proper  accomplishment  of  a  gas-cloud  attack,  they  should 
always  be  studied  thoroughly.  To  this  end  meteorological  sta- 
tions should  be  established  along  the  front  and  daily  observa- 
tions recorded,  tabulated,  and  charted.  The  ideal  weather  is 
a  gentle  wind  blowing  in  the  right  direction  at  a  rate  of  4  to 
6  miles  per  hour ;  fairly  high  humidity,  40  to  60  per  cent,  and 
an  overcast  sky.  The  upward  current  of  warm  air  on  a  sunny 
day  rapidly  dissipates  the  gas  and  on  such  a  day  the  best  time 
for  attack  is  in  the  early  morning  or  late  afternoon. 

The  order  for  a  gas  attack  should  be  given  in  detail.  It 

should  state  that  at  — hour  on  the  first  day  when  weather 

conditions  are  suitable  a  gas  attack  will  be  made  on  

sector  of  the  front  and  the  number  of  gas  waves  (rarely  more 
than  three)  and  the  time  for  releasing  each  wave  (so  many 

minutes  after hour)  \vill  be  started.  Each  day  of  the 

week  should  be  given  a  code  designation  for  some  days  in  ad- 
vance. By  this  means  when  the  proper  weather  condition  ar- 
rives, notification  to  attack  can  be  given  by  signaling  the  code 
name.  Tlte  artillery  should  have  orders  to  open  fire  on  the 
enemy  trenches  immediately  after  the  gas  wave -has  arrived 
and  a  heavy  barrage  fire  also  instituted  to  prevent  the  bringing 
up  of  reinforcements.  For  this  barrage  gas  shells  are  espe- 
cially useful. 

METHOD  OF  MAKING  A  GAS  ATTACK. 

The  gas-wave  attack  is  practically  always  followed  by  an 
infantry  attack,  and  therefore  the  most  perfect  coordination  is 
necessary  between  the  "  gas  detail,"  the  artillery,  and  the  infan- 
try. When  an  attack  is  to  be  made,  men  are  placed  in  charge  of 
each  battery  to  release  the  gas  when  the  order  is  given.  Each 
battery  is  connected  by  telephone  with  an  officer  of  the  gas 
service  responsible  for  a  given  sector  of  the  front,  and  he  in 
turn  with  the  line  officer  commanding  that  sector.  The  latter  is 


32  GAS  AS  A  WEAPON  IN  MODERN  WARFARE. 

connected  with  local  and  distant  meteorological  stations  and 
with  artillery  headquarters. 

The  time  for  delivering  the  infantry  attack  will  vary  some- 
what with  the  atmospheric  condition  under  which  the  gas  was 
'  liberated.  '  Sufficient  time  should  elapse  for  at  least  part  of  the 
gas  to  have  been  disseminated,  for  with  an  efficient  barrage  fire 
there  is  little  chance  of  reinforcement  being  brought  forward. 

Gas-shell  attacks  are  also  dependent  to  some  extent  on  the 
condition  of  the  weather.  Inasmuch,  however,  as  by  means 
of  projectiles  the  gas  can  be  liberated  directly  in  the  enemy's 
lines,  weather  conditions  are  not  nearly,  so  important  as  they 
are  in  the  gas-cloud  attack. 

The  employment  of  gas  shells  may  be  in  conjunction  with  a 
gas-cloud  attack,  or  an  infantry  attack  without  a  preliminary 
gas-cloud  attack.  As  mentioned  above,  their  greatest  usefulness 
is  in  establishing  a  heavy  barrage  to  prevent  the  bringing  up  oi 
reinforcements.  They  may  also  be  used  for  a  preliminary  bom- 
bardment of  the  trenches,  the  noxious  gases  they  liberate  mate- 
rially weakening  the  defense  in  many  instances,.  Gas  shells  are 
also  of  distinct  value  in  directing  artillery  " 

o 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA— BERKELEY 
RETURN  TO  DESK  FROM  WHICH  BORROWEI 

This  book  is  due  on  the  last  date  stamped  below,  or  on  tin 

date  to  which  renewed. 
Renewed  books  are  subject  to  immediate  recall. 


15Dec'54AM 


flS*** 


IUN  5    1956     u 
|JUN6    1956  LU 


S'D  LD 

MAR  Z    1959 

f3May'62D' 

J'iJ     -  •••' 

JAN  2  6  196? 


OCT261995 

RECEIVED 

DEC  0  9 1995 

CIRCULATION  DEPT 


LD  21-100m-l,'54(1887sl6)476 


U.  C.  BERKELEY 


